Few substitutions affect the bioluminescence spectra of Phrixotrix (Coleoptera: Phengodidae) luciferases: a site-directed mutagenesis survey

Phrixotrix (railroad worm) luciferases produce bioluminescence in the green and red regions of the spectrum, depending on the location of the lanterns, and are the only luciferases naturally producing red bioluminescence. Comparison of the luciferase sequences showed a set of substitutions that could be involved in bioluminescence colour determination: (a) unique substitutions in the red luciferase replacing otherwise invariant residues; (b) conserved basic residues in the green-yellow emitting luciferases; and (c) an additional R353 residue in red-emitting luciferase (Viviani et al., 1999). To investigate whether these sites have a functional role in bioluminescence colour determination, we performed a site-directed mutagenesis. Natural substitutions in the region 220-344 and residues in the putative luciferin-binding site were also investigated. With the exception of the previously identified substitution of R215 and T226 (Viviani et al., 2002), which display dramatic red-shift effects on the spectrum of green-yellow-emitting luciferases, only a few substitutions had a moderate effect on the spectrum of the green-emitting luciferase. In contrast, no single substitution affected the spectrum of the red-emitting luciferase. The results suggest that the identity of the active site residues is not so critical for determining red bioluminescence in PxRE luciferase. Rather, the conformation assumed during the emitting step could be critical to set up proper interactions with excited oxyluciferin. Copyright ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Role of histidine residues in EcoP15I DNA methyltransferase activity as probed by chemical modification and site-directed mutagenesis

Towards understanding the catalytic mechanism of M.EcoP15I [EcoP15I MTase (DNA methyltransferase); an adenine methyltransferase], we investigated the role of histidine residues in catalysis. M.EcoP15I, when incubated with DEPC (diethyl pyrocarbonate), a histidine-specific reagent, shows a time- and concentration-dependent inactivation of methylation of DNA containing its recognition sequence of 5'-CAGCAG-3'. The loss of enzyme activity was accompanied by an increase in absorbance at 240 nm. A difference spectrum of modified versus native enzyme shows the formation of N-carbethoxyhistidine that is diminished by hydroxylamine. This, along with other experiments, strongly suggests that the inactivation of the enzyme by DEPC was specific for histidine residues. Substrate protection experiments show that pre-incubating the methylase with DNA was able to protect the enzyme from DEPC inactivation. Site-directed mutagenesis experiments in which the 15 histidine residues in the enzyme were replaced individually with alanine corroborated the chemical modification studies and established the importance of His-335 in the methylase activity. No gross structural differences were detected between the native and H335A mutant MTases, as evident from CD spectra, native PAGE pattern or on gel filtration chromatography. Replacement of histidine with alanine residue at position 335 results in a mutant enzyme that is catalytically inactive and binds to DNA more tightly than the wild-type enzyme. Thus we have shown in the present study, through a combination of chemical modification and site-directed mutagenesis experiments, that His-335 plays an essential role in DNA methylation catalysed by M.EcoP15I.

Identification of Critical Residues of the Mycobacterial Dephosphocoenzyme A Kinase by Site-Directed Mutagenesis

Dephosphocoenzyme A kinase performs the transfer of the c-phosphate of ATP to dephosphocoenzyme A, catalyzing the last step of coenzyme A biosynthesis. This enzyme belongs to the P-loop-containing NTP hydrolase superfamily, all members of which posses a three domain topology consisting of a CoA domain that binds the acceptor substrate, the nucleotide binding domain and the lid domain. Differences in the enzymatic organization and regulation between the human and mycobacterial counterparts, have pointed out the tubercular CoaE as a high confidence drug target (HAMAP database). Unfortunately the absence of a three-dimensional crystal structure of the enzyme, either alone or complexed with either of its substrates/regulators, leaves both the reaction mechanism unidentified and the chief players involved in substrate binding, stabilization and catalysis unknown. Based on homology modeling and sequence analysis, we chose residues in the three functional domains of the enzyme to assess their contributions to ligand binding and catalysis using site-directed mutagenesis. Systematically mutating the residues from the P-loop and the nucleotide-binding site identified Lys14 and Arg140 in ATP binding and the stabilization of the phosphoryl intermediate during the phosphotransfer reaction. Mutagenesis of Asp32 and Arg140 showed catalytic efficiencies less than 5-10% of the wild type, indicating the pivotal roles played by these residues in catalysis. Non-conservative substitution of the Leu114 residue identifies this leucine as the critical residue from the hydrophobic cleft involved in leading substrate, DCoA binding. We show that the mycobacterial enzyme requires the Mg2+ for its catalytic activity. The binding energetics of the interactions of the mutant enzymes with the substrates were characterized in terms of their enthalpic and entropic contributions by ITC, providing a complete picture of the effects of the mutations on activity. The properties of mutants defective in substrate recognition were consistent with the ordered sequential mechanism of substrate addition for CoaE.

A gradient PCR-based screen for use in site-directed mutagenesis

Site-directed mutagenesis is widely used to study protein and nucleic acid structure and function. Despite recent advancements in the efficiency of procedures for site-directed mutagenesis, the fraction of site-directed mutants by most procedures rarely exceeds 50% on a routine basis and is never 100%. Hence it is typically necessary to sequence two or three clones each time a site-directed mutant is constructed. We describe a simple and robust gradient-PCR-based screen for distinguishing site-directed mutants from the starting, unmutated plasmid. The procedure can use either purified plasmid DNA or colony PCR, starting from a single colony. The screen utilizes the primer used for mutagenesis and a common outside primer that can be used for all other mutants constructed with the same template. Over 30 site-specific mutants in a variety of templates were successfully screened and all of the mutations detected were subsequently confirmed by DNA sequencing. A single base pair mismatch could be detected in an oligonucleotide of 36 bases. Detection efficiency was relatively independent of starting template concentration and the nature of the outside primer used. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

Trimeresurus stejnegeri snake venom plasminogen activator - Site-directed mutagenesis and molecular modeling

The specific plasminogen activator from Trimeresurus stejnegeri venom (TSV-PA) is a serine proteinase presenting 23% sequence identity with the proteinase domain of tissue type plasminogen activator, and 63% with batroxobin, a fibrinogen clotting enzyme from Bothrops atrox venom that does not activate plasminogen. TSV-PA contains six disulfide bonds and has been successfully overexpressed in Escherichia coli (Zhang, Y., Wisner, A., Xiong, Y. L,, and Bon, C, (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 10246-10255), To identify the functional domains of TSV-PA, we focused on three short peptide fragments of TSV-PA showing important sequence differences with batroxobin and other venom serine proteinases. Molecular modeling shows that these sequences are located in surface loop regions, one of which is next to the catalytic site, When these sequences were replaced in TSV-PA by the equivalent batroxobin residues none generated either fibrinogen-clotting or direct fibrinogenolytic activity, Two of the replacements had little effect in general and are not critical to the specificity of TSV-PA for plasminogen. Nevertheless, the third replacement, produced by the conversion of the sequence DDE 96a-98 to NVI, significantly increased the K-m for some tripeptide chromogenic substrates and resulted in undetectable plasminogen activation, indicating the key role that the sequence plays in substrate recognition by the enzyme.

Site-directed mutagenesis and structural modeling of Coq10p indicate the presence of a tunnel for coenzyme Q6 binding

Coq10p is a protein required for coenzyme Q function, but its specific role is still unknown. It is a member of the START domain superfamily that contains a hydrophobic tunnel implicated in the binding of lipophilic molecules. We used site-directed mutagenesis, statistical coupling analysis and molecular modeling to probe structural determinants in the Coq10p putative tunnel. Four point mutations were generated (coq10-K50E, coq10-L96S, coq10-E105K and coq10-K162D) and their biochemical properties analysed, as well as structural consequences. Our results show that all mutations impaired Coq10p function and together with molecular modeling indicate an important role for the Coq10p putative tunnel. (C) 2010 Federation of European Biochemical Societies. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Characterization of suramin binding sites on the human group IIA secreted phospholipase A(2) by site-directed mutagenesis and molecular dynamics simulation

Suramin is a polysulphonated naphthylurea with inhibitory activity against the human secreted group IIA phospholipase A(2) (hsPLA2GIIA), and we have investigated suramin binding to recombinant hsPLA2GIIA using site-directed mutagenesis and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The changes in suramin binding affinity of 13 cationic residue mutants of the hsPLA2GIIA was strongly correlated with alterations in the inhibition of membrane damaging activity of the protein. Suramin binding to hsPLA2GIIA was also studied by MD simulations, which demonstrated that altered intermolecular potential energy of the suramin/mutant complexes was a reliable indicator of affinity change. Although residues in the C-terminal region play a major role in the stabilization of the hsPLA2GIIA/suramin complex, attractive and repulsive hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions with residues throughout the protein together with the adoption of a bent suramin conformation, all contribute to the stability of the complex. Analysis of the h5PLA2GIIA/suramin interactions allows the prediction of the properties of suramin analogues with improved binding and higher affinities which may be candidates for novel phospholipase A(2) inhibitors. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Conversion of cucumber linoleate 13-lipoxygenase to a 9-lipoxygenating species by site-directed mutagenesis

Multiple lipoxygenase sequence alignments and structural modeling of the enzyme/substrate interaction of the cucumber lipid body lipoxygenase suggested histidine 608 as the primary determinant of positional specificity. Replacement of this amino acid by a less-space-filling valine altered the positional specificity of this linoleate 13-lipoxygenase in favor of 9-lipoxygenation. These alterations may be explained by the fact that H608V mutation may demask the positively charged guanidino group of R758, which, in turn, may force an inverse head-to-tail orientation of the fatty acid substrate. The R758L+H608V double mutant exhibited a strongly reduced reaction rate and a random positional specificity. Trilinolein, which lacks free carboxylic groups, was oxygenated to the corresponding (13S)-hydro(pero)xy derivatives by both the wild-type enzyme and the linoleate 9-lipoxygenating H608V mutant. These data indicate the complete conversion of a linoleate 13-lipoxygenase to a 9-lipoxygenating species by a single point mutation. It is hypothesized that H608V exchange may alter the orientation of the substrate at the active site and/or its steric configuration in such a way that a stereospecific dioxygen insertion at C-9 may exclusively take place.

Inactivation of the mouse sperm receptor, mZP3, by site-directed mutagenesis of individual serine residues located at the combining site for sperm

To initiate fertilization, mouse sperm bind to Ser- (O-) linked oligosaccharides located at the sperm combining site of zona pellucida glycoprotein mZP3. Apparently, the oligosaccharides are present on one or more of five Ser residues clustered in the carboxyl-terminal region of the mZP3 polypeptide. Here, each of the Ser residues, as well as an intervening Asn residue, was converted to a small, nonhydroxy amino acid by site-directed mutagenesis. Mouse embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells were then stably transfected with the wild-type and mutated mZP3 genes. In each case, transfected cells synthesized and secreted recombinant EC-mZP3 into the culture medium. The glycoproteins were partially purified and assayed for their ability to inhibit binding of sperm to ovulated eggs in vitro. As compared with wild-type EC-mZP3, mutations of Ser-329, Ser-331, or Ser-333 had no effect on sperm receptor activity. Mutation of Asn-330, a potential N-linked glycosylation site, also had no effect on sperm receptor activity. On the other hand, mutation of either Ser-332 or Ser-334, or mutation of Ser-332, Ser-333, and Ser-334, resulted in complete inactivation of EC-mZP3 as a sperm receptor. These results suggest that Ser-332 and Ser-334, residues conserved in mouse, hamster, and human ZP3, are essential for sperm receptor activity.

Analysis of the regulatory phosphorylation site in Acanthamoeba myosin IC by using site-directed mutagenesis

The actin-activated ATPase activity of Acanthamoeba myosin IC is stimulated 15- to 20-fold by phosphorylation of Ser-329 in the heavy chain. In most myosins, either glutamate or aspartate occupies this position, which lies within a surface loop that forms part of the actomyosin interface. To investigate the apparent need for a negative charge at this site, we mutated Ser-329 to alanine, asparagine, aspartate, or glutamate and coexpressed the Flag-tagged wild-type or mutant heavy chain and light chain in baculovirus-infected insect cells. Recombinant wild-type myosin IC was indistinguishable from myosin IC purified from Acanthamoeba as determined by (i) the dependence of its actin-activated ATPase activity on heavy-chain phosphorylation, (ii) the unusual triphasic dependence of its ATPase activity on the concentration of F-actin, (iii) its Km for ATP, and (iv) its ability to translocate actin filaments. The Ala and Asn mutants had the same low actin-activated ATPase activity as unphosphorylated wild-type myosin IC. The Glu mutant, like the phosphorylated wild-type protein, was 16-fold more active than unphosphorylated wild type, and the Asp mutant was 8-fold more active. The wild-type and mutant proteins had the same Km for ATP. Unphosphorylated wild-type protein and the Ala and Asn mutants were unable to translocate actin filaments, whereas the Glu mutant translocated filaments at the same velocity, and the Asp mutant at 50% the velocity, as phosphorylated wild-type proteins. These results demonstrate that an acidic amino acid can supply the negative charge in the surface loop required for the actin-dependent activities of Acanthamoeba myosin IC in vitro and indicate that the length of the side chain that delivers this charge is important.

ADP-Glucose Pyrophosphorylase from Potato Tubers. Site-Directed Mutagenesis Studies of the Regulatory Sites1

Several lysines (Lys) were determined to be involved in the regulation of the ADP-glucose (Glc) pyrophosphorylase from spinach leaf and the cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 (K. Ball, J. Preiss [1994] J Biol Chem 269: 24706–24711; Y. Charng, A.A. Iglesias, J. Preiss [1994] J Biol Chem 269: 24107–24113). Site-directed mutagenesis was used to investigate the relative roles of the conserved Lys in the heterotetrameric enzyme from potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) tubers. Mutations to alanine of Lys-404 and Lys-441 on the small subunit decreased the apparent affinity for the activator, 3-phosphoglycerate, by 3090- and 54-fold, respectively. The apparent affinity for the inhibitor, phosphate, decreased greater than 400-fold. Mutation of Lys-441 to glutamic acid showed even larger effects. When Lys-417 and Lys-455 on the large subunit were mutated to alanine, the phosphate inhibition was not altered and the apparent affinity for the activator decreased only 9- and 3-fold, respectively. Mutations of these residues to glutamic acid only decreased the affinity for the activator 12- and 5-fold, respectively. No significant changes were observed on other kinetic constants for the substrates ADP-Glc, pyrophosphate, and Mg2+. These data indicate that Lys-404 and Lys-441 on the small subunit are more important for the regulation of the ADP-Glc pyrophosphorylase than their homologous residues in the large subunit.

Absence of opioid stress-induced analgesia in mice lacking beta-endorphin by site-directed mutagenesis.

A physiological role for beta-endorphin in endogenous pain inhibition was investigated by targeted mutagenesis of the proopiomelanocortin gene in mouse embryonic stem cells. The tyrosine codon at position 179 of the proopiomelanocortin gene was converted to a premature translational stop codon. The resulting transgenic mice display no overt developmental or behavioral alterations and have a normally functioning hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Homozygous transgenic mice with a selective deficiency of beta-endorphin exhibit normal analgesia in response to morphine, indicating the presence of functional mu-opiate receptors. However, these mice lack the opioid (naloxone reversible) analgesia induced by mild swim stress. Mutant mice also display significantly greater nonopioid analgesia in response to cold water swim stress compared with controls and display paradoxical naloxone-induced analgesia. These changes may reflect compensatory upregulation of alternative pain inhibitory mechanisms.